{
  "version": "2026-10-24",
  "scope": "24 structured appraisal summaries; ongoing scoped review",
  "evidence": [
    {
      "id": "pmid-34685808",
      "title": "Beans can improve a grain's protein balance without making the mixture complete",
      "summary": "In a pig study, two cooked bean-and-grain mixtures scored above their grains alone but below their beans alone. Both mixtures still had a limiting amino acid.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "animal",
      "population": "Seven growing pigs; six observations per dietary treatment in an incomplete Latin square.",
      "method": "True ileal amino-acid digestibility; FAO older-child/adolescent/adult pattern.",
      "preparation": "Named varieties, soaked, steam-cooked, hot-air dried and ground before incorporation into experimental diets; mixtures are not cooked kitchen serving weights.",
      "applicability": "Method and comparison evidence; no coefficient join to current USDA pilot records.",
      "funding": "Public institute basic-research funds and a Ministry of Finance grain-industry database/service project; authors declared no conflicts.",
      "limitations": null,
      "locators": [
        "Methods 4.2.1–4.2.3",
        "Table 3",
        "Results 2.2"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "The Complementarity of Amino Acids in Cooked Pulse/Cereal Blends and Effects on DIAAS.",
        "authors": "Han F, Moughan PJ, Li J, Stroebinger N, Pang S.",
        "date": "2021-09-24",
        "doi": "10.3390/plants10101999",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34685808/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8541063/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-33333894",
      "title": "Cooked beans do not all have the same protein quality",
      "summary": "Six cooked pulses had different amino-acid digestibility and limiting amino acids in growing pigs. A single digestibility percentage for all beans would hide these differences.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "animal",
      "population": "Seven cannulated growing pigs; seven diets across six periods.",
      "method": "True ileal amino-acid digestibility with a nitrogen-free diet for endogenous losses.",
      "preparation": "Named Chinese varieties; soaked 12 h, steam-cooked 70 min, then hot-air dried and milled for experimental diets. Not edible cooked serving weights.",
      "applicability": "Methods context only pending analytical-basis reconciliation; reported DIAAS values must not be used as validated calculator inputs or directly ranked against other foods.",
      "funding": "Public research funding; authors declared no conflicts.",
      "limitations": null,
      "locators": [
        "Tables 3, 5, and 6",
        "Funding",
        "Conflicts of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Scores (DIAAS) of Six Cooked Chinese Pulses.",
        "authors": "Han F, Moughan PJ, Li J, Pang S.",
        "date": "2020-12-15",
        "doi": "10.3390/nu12123831",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33333894/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7765318/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-39703894",
      "title": "Eggs improved the tested breakfasts, but the mixtures scored below eggs alone",
      "summary": "A pig experiment found that adding eggs improved bread or potato meals. The mixtures did not improve on eggs' own amino-acid score. Agreement with predicted mixture scores was limited to the tested recipes.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "animal",
      "population": "Nine cannulated female pigs; nine-by-six Youden square plus a nitrogen-free period.",
      "method": "Standardized ileal digestibility and age-specific DIAAS.",
      "applicability": "Method validation and contextual benchmarks only; experimental commercial foods do not establish eligibility for the product catalog.",
      "funding": "Egg Nutrition Center funded the work; authors declared no conflicts.",
      "limitations": "No statistically detected DIAAS difference is not proof of exact equality. Some amino-acid-specific predictions differed.",
      "locators": [
        "Tables 8 and 9",
        "Acknowledgements",
        "Conflict of interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "The digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) in eggs and egg-containing breakfast meals is greater than in toast breads or hash browns served without eggs.",
        "authors": "Fanelli NS, Martins JCFR, Stein HH.",
        "date": "2024-11-12",
        "doi": "10.1017/jns.2024.71",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39703894/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11658930/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-29771297",
      "title": "Human digestion measurements depend on the food and the measurement method",
      "summary": "A small human tracer experiment studied chickpea and mung-bean meals and a dehulled variant. Its measurements cannot supply every amino-acid coefficient needed for a complete meal score.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "Six healthy adults, three men and three women, aged 18–45; study conducted in Bangalore. Per-protocol sample details remain to be checked before pooled inference.",
      "method": "Dual stable-isotope approach, calibrated spirulina reference, plateau-fed mixed meals.",
      "applicability": "Relevant human-method evidence; recipe preparation and incomplete amino-acid panel prevent a direct full-profile join.",
      "funding": "Wellcome Trust/DBT India Alliance fellowship; authors reported no conflicts.",
      "limitations": "Do not confuse the table's average over its reported analytes with a complete nine-group DIAAS or combine these coefficients with unrelated pig values.",
      "locators": [
        "Subjects and methods",
        "Table 4"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Measurement of protein digestibility in humans by a dual-tracer method.",
        "authors": "Devi S, Varkey A, Sheshshayee MS, Preston T, Kurpad AV.",
        "date": "2018-06-01",
        "doi": "10.1093/ajcn/nqy062",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29771297/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6179135/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-42162915",
      "title": "Age differences in digestion were not the same for every food",
      "summary": "A 2026 human study found a lower tracer ratio for two amino acids from sorghum in older adults. It did not detect the same age difference for milk or black beans.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "Ten young and ten older adults; randomized crossover, three protein sources.",
      "method": "Dual-tracer plasma-to-meal ratios, focusing on lysine and threonine.",
      "applicability": "Population/method limitation; not a complete set of absolute digestibility coefficients.",
      "funding": "Public–private funding included dairy companies; one author disclosed industry employment.",
      "limitations": "Do not reduce every food's protein or digestibility by 19% for older users.",
      "locators": [
        "Methods",
        "Table 4",
        "Funding",
        "Conflicts of interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Differences in amino acid digestibility between young and older adults: a randomized crossover study using the dual tracer method.",
        "authors": "Hinssen F, Tessier R, van Harskamp D, Huppertz T, Mensink M, van der Wielen N.",
        "date": "2026-05-19",
        "doi": "10.1016/j.ajcnut.2026.101361",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42162915/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13494179/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-31572586",
      "title": "Almonds contain protein, but lysine limits their balance",
      "summary": "An almond study found lysine to be the limiting amino acid across the tested varieties. It used fecal digestibility and PDCAAS, which cannot be treated as an ileal DIAAS measurement.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "animal-and-in-vitro",
      "population": "Four composite almond varieties from the 2017 California harvest and historical composition analyses; detailed rat sample size is not supplied in the inspected methods subsection, which refers to previous protocols.",
      "method": "True fecal protein digestibility by modified AOAC 991.29 rat method; in-vitro pH drop in duplicate; PDCAAS uses the 2–5-year-old child pattern, not the FAO adult pattern.",
      "applicability": "Supports method-specific limits and varietal comparison, not per-amino-acid ileal coefficients.",
      "funding": "Almond Board of California supplied funding, samples, and historical data; authors declared no conflicts.",
      "limitations": "Child-pattern PDCAAS is not directly comparable with adult DIAAS. Historical analyses have varying sample sizes and reported outlier exclusions.",
      "locators": [
        "Tables 1–3",
        "Funding information",
        "Conflict of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Determination of the protein quality of almonds (<i>Prunus dulcis</i> L.) as assessed by in vitro and in vivo methodologies.",
        "authors": "House JD, Hill K, Neufeld J, Franczyk A, Nosworthy MG.",
        "date": "2019-07-29",
        "doi": "10.1002/fsn3.1146",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31572586/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6766546/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-37513577",
      "title": "One short vegan study raises a question about the protein RDA",
      "summary": "Eighteen minimally active vegan men had negative nitrogen balance after five days at 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram. The study raises an adequacy question but does not establish a new requirement.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "18 minimally active men; single intake level, five-day supplied diet, no concurrent omnivore control.",
      "method": "Day-five urinary urea nitrogen; other losses estimated with a fixed 4 g/day allowance.",
      "applicability": "Counterevidence to unconditional adequacy claims. Do not enable an automatic vegan multiplier or treat the authors’ calculated higher dose as a tested requirement.",
      "funding": "No external funding or conflicts declared.",
      "limitations": "Short adaptation, self-reported adherence, estimated non-urea losses, and one tested dose limit inference. The example menu includes commercial meals and a protein shake; it is not a whole-food menu trial.",
      "locators": [
        "Methods 2.2–2.3",
        "Table 1",
        "Discussion: limitations",
        "Funding",
        "Conflicts of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Nitrogen Balance at the Recommended Dietary Allowance for Protein in Minimally Active Male Vegans.",
        "authors": "Bartholomae E, Johnston CS.",
        "date": "2023-07-16",
        "doi": "10.3390/nu15143159",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37513577/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10385755/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-37968717",
      "title": "Some vegan food records fell short on protein and amino acids",
      "summary": "In three-day records from 40 Danish vegans, some participants fell below the study’s intake references. Lysine was a frequent gap. Short food records cannot establish an individual’s long-term deficiency.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human-observational",
      "population": "40 Danish vegans; three-day weighed records; self-reported body weight and activity.",
      "method": "Database composition compared with WHO average requirements (protein 0.66 g/kg/day) and a separate Nordic recommended protein intake of 0.8 g/kg/day, as clarified by the 2024 correction.",
      "applicability": "Supports day-level accounting and explaining missing intake context. Different thresholds must be retained when comparing other surveys.",
      "funding": "Danish public programme GUDP funding; no competing interests declared.",
      "limitations": "Self-selection, short records, database uncertainty and self-report limit generalization. Reference comparisons are not clinical diagnoses.",
      "locators": [
        "Table 1",
        "Table 2",
        "Results",
        "Discussion: limitations",
        "Funding",
        "Declarations",
        "Correction PMID 38627857: corrected abstract, Table 1 caption and results"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Protein content and amino acid composition in the diet of Danish vegans: a cross-sectional study.",
        "authors": "Aaslyng MD, Dam AB, Petersen IL, Christoffersen T.",
        "date": "2023-11-15",
        "doi": "10.1186/s40795-023-00793-y",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37968717/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10647079/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-35034170",
      "title": "Another vegan survey found mostly sufficient amino-acid intake",
      "summary": "A German study of 36 vegans and 36 omnivores found lower amino-acid intakes in vegans, but only one vegan fell below its average-requirement threshold for protein and lysine.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human-observational",
      "population": "36 vegans and 36 omnivores aged 30–60; three-day weighed food records and laboratory measurements.",
      "method": "Dietary intake and plasma amino acids; WHO estimated average requirement comparison.",
      "applicability": "Counterbalance to universal inadequacy claims. Plasma concentration is not a direct measure of dietary adequacy or food digestibility.",
      "funding": "No competing interests declared; complete funding locator remains pending.",
      "limitations": "A short record is not usual intake; some vegan foods lacked amino-acid data. EAR comparisons are separate from RDA thresholds; populations, databases and reporting methods differ between surveys.",
      "locators": [
        "Abstract",
        "Strengths and limitations",
        "Conclusion",
        "Declarations"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Amino acid intake and plasma concentrations and their interplay with gut microbiota in vegans and omnivores in Germany.",
        "authors": "Dietrich S, Trefflich I, Ueland PM, Menzel J, Penczynski KJ, Abraham K, Weikert C.",
        "date": "2022-01-16",
        "doi": "10.1007/s00394-021-02790-y",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35034170/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9106628/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-33693735",
      "title": "Equal food-group servings did not provide equal protein responses",
      "summary": "In 56 young adults, animal foods produced greater acute net protein balance than the tested plant foods at food-group ounce equivalents. Those portions contained different amounts of protein and essential amino acids.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "56 healthy young adults, eight per parallel group; seven single-food interventions.",
      "method": "Stable-isotope whole-body protein kinetics after two food-group ounce equivalents.",
      "applicability": "Supports explicit equal-protein and equal-energy comparators, not an equal-protein superiority claim.",
      "funding": "Pork, egg and beef organizations funded the work; an author disclosed related honoraria, travel and company shareholdings.",
      "limitations": "Acute isolated-food comparison, neither equal protein nor equal energy. It cannot rank long-term outcomes or isolate protein source from dose.",
      "locators": [
        "Table 1",
        "Table 2",
        "Discussion: limitations",
        "Notes: funding and disclosures"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Metabolic Evaluation of the Dietary Guidelines' Ounce Equivalents of Protein Food Sources in Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial.",
        "authors": "Park S, Church DD, Schutzler SE, Azhar G, Kim IY, Ferrando AA, Wolfe RR.",
        "date": "2021-05-01",
        "doi": "10.1093/jn/nxaa401",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33693735/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8112772/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-40288581",
      "title": "Exercise improved muscle protein synthesis in both tested diets",
      "summary": "A ten-day trial in 27 adults aged 50–70 found higher muscle protein synthesis in trained legs, without a detected difference between the tested plant-focused and animal-focused diets.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "27 adults aged 50–70; randomized parallel diet groups with unilateral resistance exercise.",
      "method": "Integrated myofibrillar protein synthesis; 1.0 g protein/kg/day, with pea or whey supplements.",
      "applicability": "Outcome context only; isolates are not eligible catalog foods or whole-food coefficients.",
      "funding": "Joint university/Volac studentship; an industry employee participated in conceptualization and revisions, and other protein-industry relationships were disclosed.",
      "limitations": "Short duration, small groups and supplemented diets; no detected difference is not proof of universal equivalence or long-term muscle gain.",
      "locators": [
        "Abstract",
        "Methods",
        "Funding",
        "Conflicts of interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Resistance training increases myofibrillar protein synthesis in middle-to-older aged adults consuming a typical diet with no influence of protein source: a randomized controlled trial.",
        "authors": "Korzepa M, Quinlan JI, Marshall RN, Rogers LM, Belfield AE, Elhassan YS, Lawson A, Ayre C, Senden JM, Goessens JP, Glover EI, Wallis GA, van Loon LJ, Breen L.",
        "date": "2025-04-25",
        "doi": "10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.04.019",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40288581/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12308137/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-41228401",
      "title": "Tested protein blends showed similar responses in older men",
      "summary": "Thirty-two older men received one of four protein blends. The study did not detect differences in its relative digestion measure or muscle protein synthesis between blends.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "32 healthy men aged 65–75; eight per group; trickle-fed protein blends.",
      "method": "Dual-isotope relative dilution technique and muscle biopsies; total 20 g protein.",
      "applicability": "Method/outcome context only. Formulated blends are outside the food catalog; relative tracer ratios are not absolute per-amino-acid coefficients.",
      "funding": "Fresenius Kabi funded the investigator-initiated study; public infrastructure funding; authors declared no conflicts.",
      "limitations": "Small groups, trickle feeding and a method requiring further validation. The early biopsy followed about 11.8 g protein, not the full dose.",
      "locators": [
        "Abstract",
        "Discussion: reporter-protein method and limitations",
        "Funding",
        "Conflicts of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Investigating the Digestibility, Bioavailability and Utilization of Protein Blends in Older Adults Using a Dual Stable Isotope Tracer Technique.",
        "authors": "Cox J, Phillips BE, Bunce J, Smart T, Wall J, Crossland H, Wilkinson DJ, Smith K, Atherton PJ.",
        "date": "2025-10-23",
        "doi": "10.3390/nu17213328",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41228401/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12609865/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-31690027",
      "title": "A varied day matters more than a perfect score for every food",
      "summary": "This review explains how varied vegetarian diets can meet protein and amino-acid needs. It also identifies uncertainty for restrictive diets and people with higher needs.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "narrative-review",
      "population": "Published adult dietary surveys and experimental studies; specific-population discussion.",
      "method": "Narrative synthesis, not a new digestion or outcome experiment.",
      "applicability": "Support day-level context while retaining meal-level quantities. Do not claim indefinite storage of amino acids or that timing never matters.",
      "funding": "No external funding for the review; one author disclosed leadership of a plant-protein industry research contract without personal fee.",
      "limitations": "Timing arguments include mechanistic and animal evidence. The review predates later counterevidence; it does not prove that all meal schedules or vegan diets are equivalent.",
      "locators": [
        "Sections 2–3",
        "Sections 6–8",
        "Funding",
        "Conflicts of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Dietary Protein and Amino Acids in Vegetarian Diets-A Review.",
        "authors": "Mariotti F, Gardner CD.",
        "date": "2019-11-04",
        "doi": "10.3390/nu11112661",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31690027/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6893534/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-28642676",
      "title": "Exercise guidance uses a different protein goal from the adult RDA",
      "summary": "The 2017 ISSN position gives 1.4–2.0 grams per kilogram per day for most healthy exercising people. This is sports guidance, not a replacement for the general adult RDA.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "position-statement",
      "population": "Healthy exercising individuals; separate discussion of energy restriction and older adults.",
      "method": "Society position based on a literature review.",
      "applicability": "Eligible as a clearly labelled optional exercise goal, separate from the joint 2016 athletic range of 1.2–2.0.",
      "funding": "No funding for the statement; multiple authors disclosed supplement-industry research, advisory, employment or commercial relationships.",
      "limitations": "Context-specific range; special high-dose scenarios are not a universal default. Verify updates before launch.",
      "locators": [
        "Position statement, point 2",
        "Daily protein needs",
        "Funding",
        "Competing interests"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and exercise.",
        "authors": "Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, Cribb PJ, Wells SD, Skwiat TM, Purpura M, Ziegenfuss TN, Ferrando AA, Arent SM, Smith-Ryan AE, Stout JR, Arciero PJ, Ormsbee MJ, Taylor LW, Wilborn CD, Kalman DS, Kreider RB, Willoughby DS, Hoffman JR, Krzykowski JL, Antonio J.",
        "date": "2017-06-20",
        "doi": "10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28642676/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5477153/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-38627857",
      "title": "A correction clarifies which intake threshold the vegan study used",
      "summary": "The authors corrected their use of “recommended intake” and “average requirement.” The study’s 60% protein result concerns the WHO average requirement; 50% met the separate Nordic recommendation on all three days.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "published-correction",
      "population": "Correction to PMID 37968717; not an additional experiment.",
      "method": "Author correction of terminology and related result descriptions.",
      "applicability": "Always link and apply when summarizing the original study; do not count as independent evidence.",
      "limitations": null,
      "locators": [
        "Corrected abstract",
        "Corrected Table 1 caption",
        "Corrected results paragraphs"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Correction: Protein content and amino acid composition in the diet of Danish vegans: a cross-sectional study.",
        "authors": "Aaslyng MD, Dam AB, Petersen IL, Christoffersen T.",
        "date": "2024-04-16",
        "doi": "10.1186/s40795-024-00866-6",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38627857/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11020264/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-31127832",
      "title": "A drink alongside a meal can change digestion measurements",
      "summary": "In five adults, strong black tea reduced measured egg amino-acid digestibility compared with an earlier egg meal. The small study shows why a meal’s digestion cannot always be predicted from separate ingredients.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "Five healthy Indian adults aged 20–27; earlier no-tea measurements in the same people; three also tested the reference protein.",
      "method": "Dual-isotope tracer technique; seven amino acids measured; plateau-fed egg, ghee rice and tomato curry.",
      "preparation": "Tea prepared with 15 g leaves/powder in 240 g boiling water for 10 minutes; do not assume this represents every tea serving.",
      "applicability": "Evidence against universal mixture additivity; do not apply a blanket tea penalty or create full meal DIAAS from these results.",
      "funding": "Wellcome Trust/DBT fellowship; no conflicts declared.",
      "limitations": "No randomized concurrent control; previous measurements were two months earlier. The method has calibration/first-pass assumptions and an incomplete nine-group panel.",
      "locators": [
        "Methods",
        "Table 3",
        "Discussion: limitations",
        "Notes"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Co-ingestion of Black Tea Reduces the Indispensable Amino Acid Digestibility of Hens' Egg in Indian Adults.",
        "authors": "Kashyap S, Shivakumar N, Varkey A, Preston T, Devi S, Kurpad AV.",
        "date": "2019-08-01",
        "doi": "10.1093/jn/nxz091",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31127832/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6682489/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-31374575",
      "title": "Removing the hull improved measured mung-bean digestion",
      "summary": "A human tracer study found higher average amino-acid digestibility for dehulled mung beans than whole mung beans. Effects differed by amino acid, so one preparation factor cannot describe every nutrient.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "Healthy Indian adults; six participants per main legume group; five in the alternate-reference validation.",
      "method": "Dual-isotope tracer method with a calibrated spirulina reference; seven-amino-acid panel.",
      "applicability": "Use separate preparation records; no automatic dehulling multiplier for arbitrary foods or nutrients.",
      "funding": "Wellcome Trust/DBT and IAEA support; no conflicts declared.",
      "limitations": "Panel means are not complete nine-group scores. Free-amino-acid absorption and similar first-pass metabolism are assumptions; prior reference-protein calibration used different people.",
      "locators": [
        "Methods: statistical analysis",
        "Tables 4–5",
        "Discussion: limitations",
        "Notes"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "True ileal digestibility of legumes determined by dual-isotope tracer method in Indian adults.",
        "authors": "Kashyap S, Varkey A, Shivakumar N, Devi S, Reddy B H R, Thomas T, Preston T, Sreeman S, Kurpad AV.",
        "date": "2019-10-01",
        "doi": "10.1093/ajcn/nqz159",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31374575/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6766447/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-38107092",
      "title": "Cooking changed potato protein quality in different ways",
      "summary": "In a Russet-potato experiment, cooking improved fecal protein digestibility in rats, while frying reduced the amino-acid score. Better digestion alone did not guarantee the highest overall score.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "animal-and-in-vitro",
      "population": "Study-specific Russet potatoes; rat assay and several laboratory digestion methods.",
      "method": "True fecal protein digestibility and PDCAAS using a 2–5-year-old child pattern; not adult DIAAS.",
      "applicability": "Preserve cooking variants and method labels. Do not rank child-pattern PDCAAS against adult DIAAS.",
      "funding": "Alliance for Potato Research and Education funding and donated potatoes; authors declared no conflicts.",
      "limitations": "Table 2 values retained rather than rounded abstract descriptions; assay/preparation-specific results cannot be transferred to all potato varieties or human ileal coefficients.",
      "locators": [
        "Methods 2.5 and 2.8",
        "Table 2",
        "Acknowledgments",
        "Conflict of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Impact of cooking on the protein quality of Russet potatoes.",
        "authors": "Bailey T, Franczyk AJ, Goldberg EM, House JD.",
        "date": "2023-10-03",
        "doi": "10.1002/fsn3.3734",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38107092/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10724643/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-36774104",
      "title": "Higher amino-acid peaks did not produce a detected muscle-synthesis difference",
      "summary": "Boiled eggs produced higher peak blood amino acids than raw eggs in 45 trained young men. The trial did not detect a difference between groups in muscle protein synthesis over five hours.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "human",
      "population": "45 healthy resistance-trained young men, 15 per group; randomized parallel trial after resistance exercise.",
      "method": "Five raw eggs, five boiled eggs or a lower-protein breakfast; stable-isotope myofibrillar protein synthesis.",
      "applicability": "Do not turn amino-acid balance or blood amino-acid peaks into a muscle-gain prediction.",
      "funding": "University internal funding; authors disclosed other nutrition-industry research relationships.",
      "limitations": "The numerical increases relative to control were not statistically significant between groups. This acute endpoint does not establish identical digestion, long-term outcomes or a reason to prefer raw eggs.",
      "locators": [
        "Abstract",
        "Methods",
        "Results: myofibrillar protein synthesis",
        "Figures 6–7",
        "Notes"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Raw Eggs To Support Postexercise Recovery in Healthy Young Men: Did Rocky Get It Right or Wrong?",
        "authors": "Fuchs CJ, Hermans WJ, Smeets JS, Senden JM, van Kranenburg J, Gorissen SH, Burd NA, Verdijk LB, van Loon LJ.",
        "date": "2022-08-09",
        "doi": "10.1093/jn/nxac174",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36774104/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9644172/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-34307436",
      "title": "Leucine alone does not explain every muscle response",
      "summary": "A review of 29 studies found more support for a leucine-trigger explanation in older adults and isolated-protein studies than in whole-food studies. A single leucine threshold is an incomplete model.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "systematic-review",
      "population": "29 eligible studies in young/older adults, at rest or after exercise.",
      "method": "Qualitative classification of blood leucine and muscle protein synthesis responses.",
      "applicability": "Show leucine content as composition; do not label a meal as guaranteed muscle-building after crossing a threshold.",
      "funding": "No commercial or financial conflicts declared; complete funding review remains open.",
      "limitations": "Qualitative synthesis of unlike experiments, not a universal dose-response equation. Whole-food matrix and population matter.",
      "locators": [
        "Abstract",
        "Methods",
        "Results",
        "Conflict of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Evaluating the Leucine Trigger Hypothesis to Explain the Post-prandial Regulation of Muscle Protein Synthesis in Young and Older Adults: A Systematic Review.",
        "authors": "Zaromskyte G, Prokopidis K, Ioannidis T, Tipton KD, Witard OC.",
        "date": "2021-07-08",
        "doi": "10.3389/fnut.2021.685165",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34307436/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8295465/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-39021594",
      "title": "Protein-quality scores answer a narrower question than overall food quality",
      "summary": "This methods review describes progress in DIAAS measurement and unresolved questions about reference patterns, processing and human measurements. It supports keeping protein quality separate from overall health effects.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "methods-review",
      "population": "Human and animal digestion-method literature; no new feeding trial.",
      "method": "Review of DIAAS ten years after the FAO consultation.",
      "applicability": "Maintain separate composition, digestibility and broader-nutrition displays; do not convert a scalar score into ingredient coefficients.",
      "funding": "No commercial or financial conflicts declared.",
      "limitations": "Methodological synthesis does not validate every food coefficient, mixed meal or population. Review conclusions need primary-data checks for numeric use.",
      "locators": [
        "Abstract",
        "Methodological aspects of DIAAS",
        "Conceptual aspects concerning DIAAS",
        "Conflict of interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS): 10 years on.",
        "authors": "Moughan PJ, Lim WXJ.",
        "date": "2024-07-03",
        "doi": "10.3389/fnut.2024.1389719",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39021594/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11252030/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-35268063",
      "title": "Changing a few foods improved four modelled vegan menus",
      "summary": "Researchers calculated protein quality for example menus; they did not feed the menus to people. Replacing some foods improved the estimates, but the result depends on borrowed digestion data and recipe assumptions.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "diet-modelling",
      "population": "Four constructed daily menus for a hypothetical healthy Swiss man, age 30, 78 kg, moderate activity, 2500 kcal/day; no participants.",
      "method": "Modelled PDCAAS and DIAAS using composition and digestibility sources.",
      "applicability": "Illustration of diet modelling and its limitations; no digestion coefficients approved.",
      "funding": "No external funding; no conflicts declared.",
      "limitations": "Table 1 screens foods using mixed reference ages and a PDCAAS substitution. Cooking ratios and borrowed coefficients are model assumptions; supplements not independently audited here. The abstract repeats day 1 LQ with contradictory quality labels; Table 7 identifies day 2 LQ as low. Do not copy this model as validated catalog data.",
      "locators": [
        "Methods 2.1–2.2",
        "Tables 1, 6 and 7",
        "Funding",
        "Conflicts of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Protein Quality Changes of Vegan Day Menus with Different Plant Protein Source Compositions.",
        "authors": "Rojas Conzuelo Z, Bez NS, Theobald S, Kopf-Bolanz KA.",
        "date": "2022-03-04",
        "doi": "10.3390/nu14051088",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35268063/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8912849/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-40675340",
      "title": "One protein score cannot tell the whole story",
      "summary": "This review separates amino-acid balance, digestion and the body’s response after eating. Preparation and population can change the interpretation; the review does not provide a universal correction for every food.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "review",
      "population": "Narrative review across food analyses, digestion methods and metabolic studies; no new participants.",
      "method": "Contextual synthesis of chemical scoring and stable-isotope methods.",
      "applicability": "Research explanation and primary-study discovery; no automatic ingredient adjustments.",
      "funding": "No funding for the review declared; several authors disclose dairy, beef, pork, supplement-related or other commercial relationships and patents. Full disclosures retained in original article.",
      "limitations": "Not a new controlled experiment. Figure 2 caption swaps the sulfur/aromatic group labels; use FAO definitions instead. Some examples use isolates or products outside the catalog.",
      "locators": [
        "Sections 3 and 5",
        "Figure 2",
        "Conclusions",
        "Funding",
        "Conflict of interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Understanding Dietary Protein Quality: Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Scores and Beyond.",
        "authors": "Matthews JJ, Arentson-Lantz EJ, Moughan PJ, Wolfe RR, Ferrando AA, Church DD.",
        "date": "2025-07-15",
        "doi": "10.1016/j.tjnut.2025.07.005",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40675340/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12799415/"
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "pmid-34959808",
      "title": "Milk can change zinc absorption in some meals",
      "summary": "A review describes studies where dairy helped zinc absorption from certain plant-based meals. The effect depended on the meal, so adding milk does not justify a fixed zinc-absorption bonus.",
      "evidenceOrigin": "review",
      "population": "Secondary review of meal absorption experiments; not a new trial.",
      "method": "Narrative synthesis of dairy, phytate and zinc absorption.",
      "applicability": "Explain why nutrient content is not the same as absorbed intake. Primary follow-up remains in the access register.",
      "funding": "Dutch Dairy Association supported the review; authors declared no conflicts.",
      "limitations": "Relevant primary reports were identified but full-text appraisal remains unresolved. Do not turn secondary percentages into calculator coefficients or general dietary instructions.",
      "locators": [
        "Sections 5 and 7",
        "Funding",
        "Conflicts of Interest"
      ],
      "originalCitation": {
        "title": "Influence of Dairy Products on Bioavailability of Zinc from Other Food Products: A Review of Complementarity at a Meal Level.",
        "authors": "Shkembi B, Huppertz T.",
        "date": "2021-11-26",
        "doi": "10.3390/nu13124253",
        "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34959808/",
        "fullTextUrl": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8705257/"
      }
    }
  ]
}